Categoria: Idiomas

For millions of years the Amazon flowed into the Pacific

Leonardo BoffDeixe um comentário

In function of the PanAmazonic Synod let’s continue delving into the history of the Amazon ecosystem.

Euclides da Cunha (1866-1909), a classic of Brazilian letters, was also a passionate researcher of the Amazon region, and in 1905 he wrote: «Human intelligence could not support the weight of the powerful reality of the Amazon, human intelligence would have to grow up with her, adapting to her in order to to dominate her» (A lost paradise, Um paraíso perdido, Collection of essays on the Amazon, Petropolis 1976,15). This statement shows the exuberant richness of this vast ecosystem..

Paradoxically, the Amazon also suffers the most violence. To see the brutal face of the predatory capitalist system, we need only to visit the Amazon. The monstrous nature of the spirit of modernity, the rationalization of the irrational and the implacable logic of the anti-nature system is visible there.

The Brazilian state, national and multinational enterprises, formed a huge trio and gave rise to what has come to be called “The Amazon mode of production”. cf. Mires, F., Discourse of nature: ecological and political in Latin America, (Discurso de la naturaleza: ecología y política en América Latina, DEI, San José 1990, 119-123). It is a form of production/ destruction that is terrifyingly predatory, applying intensive technology against nature, declaring war against the rain forest, exterminating native and adventitious populations, super exploiting the work force, even to the point of slavery, seeking production to satisfy the world market.

The continental Amazon comprises 6.5 million square kilometers, covering two fifths of Latin America, half of Peru, a third of Colombia and large parts of Bolivia, Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana and Suriname, as well as 3.5 million square kilometers of Brazil.

Geologically, the proto-Amazon during the paleozoic era (between 550 to 230 million years ago) was a gigantic gulf opening towards the Pacific Ocean. South America was still connected to Africa. In the cenozoic era. At the start of the tertiary period, some 70 million years ago, the Andes began to emerge, and during the plioceno and the pleistoceno and for thousands and thousands of years thereafter, the Andes blocked the water from reaching the Pacific. The whole Amazon depression was converted in a liquid paradise until it found a path to the Atlantic Ocean, as is now the case. (cf.Soli,H., Amazônia, fundamentos da ecologia da maior região de florestas tropicais, Vozes, Petrópolis 1985, 15-17).

According to recent investigations, the Amazon, which with 7,100 kilometers is the world’s longest river, whose origins are found between the Mismi, (5.669 m), and the Kcahuich, (5.577 m), mountains, South of the city of Cuzco, in Peru. The Amazon is also the river with the largest flow, averaging 200,000 cubic meters flow per second. By itself, the Amazon contains from 1/5 to 1/6 of the mass of water that all of Earth’s rivers jointly launch into the oceans and seas. The principal bed of the river is an average of 4 to 5 km wide with a depth that varies from 100 meters in Obidos to 4 meters at the mouth of the Xingu river.

The Amazon offers the largest genetic heritage. As Eneas Salati, one of our finest researchers, said: «In a few hectares of the Amazon jungle there exist more species of plants and insects than all the flora and fauna of Europe» (Salati, E., Amazônia: desenvolvimento, integração, ecologia, Brasiliense/CNPq, S.Paulo 1983; cf. Leroy, J.-P., Uma chama na Amazônia, Vozes/Fase, Petrópolis 1991,184-202; Ribeiro, B., Amazônia urgente, cinco séculos de história e ecologia, Itatiaia, B.Horizonte 1990, 53). But we should not deceive ourselves: this exuberant jungle is extremely fragile, because it stands on one of the poorest and most leached soils of the Earth, as we wrote in the previous article.

According to historian Pierre Chaunu, 2 million people lived In the pre-Colombian Amazon, and in all of South America there were around 80 to 100 million; 5 million of them in Brazil.

The people of those times developed a subtle handling of the jungle, respecting her uniqueness, but at the same time, modifying the habitat to stimulate plant life that was useful for humans. As anthropologist Viveiros de Castro affirms: «The Amazon we see now is what resulted from centuries of social intervention, and the societies that live there are the result of centuries of coexistence with the Amazon» (“Sociedades indígenas y naturaleza”, en Tempo e Presença, n.261, 1992, 26). E. Miranda is still more emphatic: «Little of nature remains in the Amazon that is untouched and unaltered nature by humans» (Quando o Amazonas corria para o Pacífico, Vozes, Petrópolis 2007, 83).

There were around 1,400 tribes in pre-Cabral Brazil, 60% of them in the Amazon area. Languages were spoken that belonged to 40 groups subdivided into 94 different families; a fantastic phenomenon that caused ethnologist Berta Ribeiro to affirm that «nowhere else on Earth was found such a linguistic variety as that observed in tropical South America» (Amazônia urgente, op.cit. 75).

It is worth noting that in the interior of the Amazon jungle, 1,100 years before the arrival of the Europeans an immense space (almost an “empire”) of the tribe tupi-guarani was formed. It included territories that stretched from the Andean foothills, created by the river, up to the basin of the Paraguay and the Parana, reaching up to the North and North East to descend to the Pantanal and gaucho pampas.

Practically all of the Brazilian forest, with few exceptions, was conquered by the tupi-guarani (cf.Miranda, E., Quando o Amazonas corria para o Pacífico, op.cit.92-93). A “proto-state” was created, with extensive commerce with the Andes and the Caribbean.

This demolishes the belief in a savage character and civilizing vacuum of the Amazon.

Leonardo Boff Eco-Theologian-Philosopher Earthcharter Commission

Free translation from the Spanish sent by
Melina Alfaro, alfaro_melina@yahoo.com.ar.
Done at REFUGIO DEL RIO GRANDE, Texas, EE.UU.

The Amazon: neither savage, nor the World’s Lungs or Granary

Leonardo Boff1 comentário

The Pan-Amazon Synod that will take place in Rome this October, requires a better knowledge of the Amazon ecosystem. Myths must be ferreted out.

The first myth: the Indigenous people as wild, genuinely natural, and therefore, in perfect harmony with nature. The Indigenous are regulated not by cultural but by natural criteria. The Indigenous are in a sort of a biological siesta with nature, in a perfect, passive, adaptation to its rhythms and logic.

This ecologization of the Indigenous is a fantasy, resulting from the fatigue of urban life, with its excessive technology and artificiality.

What we can say is that the Amazon Indigenous are as human any other, and as such, they are in constant interaction with the environment. More and more, research reveals the interaction between the Indigenous and nature, and their mutual affects on each other. The relationships are not “natural,” but cultural, like ours, in an intricate web of reciprocity. Perhaps the Indigenous have something unique that sets them apart from modern man: they experience and understand nature as part of their society and culture, an extension of their personal and social body. For them, nature is not, as it is for the modern man, a mute and neutral object. Nature speaks and the Indigenous listen and understand her voice and her message. Nature is part of society and society is part of nature, in a constant process of reciprocal adaptation. For that reason the Indigenous are much better integrated than we are. We have much to learn from the relationship the Indigenous maintain with nature.

The second myth: The Amazon is the lungs of the world.Specialists affirm that the Amazon jungle is in a state of climax. That is, the Amazon is in an optimal state of life, a dynamic equilibrium in which everything is well utilized and therefore everything is in balance. The energy captured by plants is put to good use through the interactions of the food chain. The oxygen they liberate during the day through photosynthesis is utilized at night by the plants themselves, and other living organisms. Therefore, the Amazon is not the world’s lungs.

But the Amazon does function as a great fixer of carbon dioxide. In the process of photosynthesis great quantities of carbon are absorbed. And carbon dioxide is a principal cause of the greenhouse effect that warms the Earth (in the last 100 years it grew by 25%). If one day the Amazon were totally deforested, nearly 50 billion tons of carbon dioxide a year would be launched into the atmosphere. That would cause a massive extinction of living organisms.

The third myth: the Amazon as the world’s bread basket. That is what the first explorers thought, such as von Humboldt and Bonpland and the Brazilians planners while the military was in power (1964-1983). That is not true. Research has shown that “the jungle lives by herself” and in great part “for herself” (cf. Baum, V., Das Ökosystem der tropischen Regenswälder, Giessen 1986, 39). The jungle is luxuriant but the soil is poor in humus. This sounds paradoxical. Harald Sioli, the great specialist in the Amazon, put it clearly: “the jungle actually grows on the soil and not from the soil” (A Amazônia, Vozes 1985, 60). And he explains: the soil is only the physical support for an intricate web of roots. The trees’ roots are intertwined and mutually support each other at the base. An immense balance and rhythm is formed. All the jungle moves and dances. This is why, when one tree falls it drags several other trees down as well.

The jungle maintains her exuberant character because it is a closed chain of nutrients. Aided by the water that drips from the leaves and runs down the tree trunks, a bio-layer of leaves, fruits, small roots, and wild animal droppings decomposes into the soil. It is not the soil that nourishes the trees. It is the trees that nourish the soil. Those two sources of water wash down, carrying the excrement of tree dwelling animals and of the larger species, such as birds, coatis, macaques, sloths and others, as well as the myriad of insects that live in the tree tops. An enormous quantity of fungi and countless micro-organisms make these nutrients available to the roots. Through the roots, the plants absorb them, guaranteeing the captivating exuberance of the Amazon Hileia. But it is a closed system, with a complex and fragile equilibrium. Any small deviation can have disastrous consequences.

The humus commonly is not more than 30-40 centimeters deep, and can be washed away by torrential rains. In a short time, sand would appear. The Amazon without the jungle would be transformed into an immense sabana or even a desert. That is why the Amazon never can be the granary of the world, but will continue being the temple of the greatest biodiversity.

The specialist of the Amazon, Shelton H. Davis, noted in 1978 a truth that is still valid in 2019: “A silent war is presently being waged against the Aboriginal peoples, against innocent peasants and against the ecosystem of the jungle in the Amazon basin” (Victims of the miracle, Saar 1978, 202). Until 1968 the jungle was practically intact. Ever since, with the great hydroelectric projects and agribusiness; and now with the anti-ecologism of the Bolsonaro government, the brutalization and devastation of the Amazon continues.

Leonardo Boff  is Eco-Theologian-Philosopher and of theEarthcharter Commission

Free translation from the Spanish sent by
Melina Alfaro, alfaro_melina@yahoo.com.ar.
Done at REFUGIO DEL RIO GRANDE, Texas, EE.UU.

 

Good News: there will be married priests

Leonardo Boff2 Comentários

Good News: there will be married priests

On July 17, 2019, the Vatican released a document recommending that the Pan-Amazonic Synod to be celebrated in Rome in October, to consider the ordination as priests of elderly and respected married men, especially the indigenous, in remote regions of the Amazon. Pope Francis does not want a Church that visits, but a Church that stays. This is an old aspiration which was proposed by the National Conference of Bishops of Brazil (CNBB) to Pope John Paul II in the 1980s. John Paul II took the suggestion as a provocation, and therefore maintained something of a distance from the CNBB.

Reliable ecclesiastic sources offer the following data: from 1964 to 2004, 70,000 priests left the Church’s ministry. In Brazil 7,000 of 18,000 priests also left. The Ecclesial Base Communities, CEBs, and the lay ministries fill in for the lack of priests. Why not welcome priests who are already married and let them resume their ministry, or ordain married men?

This suggestion of Pope Francis will surely be accepted by the Pan-Amazonic Synod. It also mentions an “official ministry for women”, but we do not know yet what it will entail. In the end, we finally will have married priests, an old desideratum of many churches.

The celibacy question has been divisive from the start of Christianity. Two tendencies appeared: one that allowed married priests and another that opted for celibate priests. It was clear to everyone that celibacy is not a dogma of faith but an ecclesiastic discipline, a characteristic of the Western Church. All the other Catholic Churches (the Orthodox, Syriac, Melkite, Ethiopic, etc.), and other Christian Churches do not follow that discipline. As a discipline, it can be abolished. In the end, it depends on the decision of the Pope.
Jesus speaks of three types of celibates, that are called eunuchs or castrated (eunoûxoi in Greek). He says of them: “there are some eunuchs who make themselves so for the love of the Kingdom of heaven; he who may understand let him do it” (Matthew 19,12). He recognizes that “not everyone is capable of understanding this, but only those to whom it has been given” (Matthew 19,11). Curiously, in the First Epistle to Timothy it says that “the bishop be husband of only one woman… he must know how to govern well his house and educate the children in obedience and chastity” (1 Timothy 3, 2-4).

Summarizing the long and twisted history of celibacy, it can be seen that initially it did not exist as law, and if there was such a law, it was not well observed. Popes Adrian II (867-872) and Sergio III (904-911) were married. Between the X and XIII centuries, historians say that it was common for a priest to have a compañera. That was also common in colonial Brazil. In the past, rural priests begat children and educated them to be sub deacons, deacons and priests, because there were no institutions to prepare them.

The fact that some Popes did not observe celibacy deserves an aside. There was an epoch, between 900 and 1110, of great moral decadence, called “the pornocratic era”. Benedict IX (1033-1045) was consecrated Pope when he was 12 years old, already “full of vices”. Pope John XII (955-964), consecrated at 18 years old, indulged in orgies and adulteries. Renaissance Popes such as Paul III, Alexander VI, with several children, and Leo X who married his children with pomp in the Vatican, were infamous, (see Daniel Rops, History of the Church of Christ (La historia de la Iglesia de Cristo, II, Porto 1960, p.617ss). Finally, when the Council of Trent was celebrated, (1545 and 1563) it made obligatory the law of celibacy for all who ascended to the priestly order. And it has remained that way until the present. Seminaries were created where the candidates were prepared for the priesthood from a very early age, with an apologetic perspective to confront the Protestant Reformation and later on, to deal with the heresies and the”modern errors”.
As in all the other Churches, we favor having married as well as celibate priests, not as a mandatory law or as a precondition for the ministry, but as an option. Celibacy is a charisma, a gift of the Spirit to the one who can live it without much sacrifice. Jesus understood it well: celibacy is a “castration”, with a void replacing the sensitivity and intimacy between man and woman. But that renunciation is assumed with love for the Kingdom of God, to serve the others, especially the poorest. Consequently, that absence is compensated by a superabundance of love. To that end, an intimate encounter with Christ is needed, a cultivation of spirituality, prayer and self control. Realistically, as the Master observes: “not all are capable of understanding that” (Matthew 19,11). There are those who understand it. They joyfully live their option for celibacy, without hardening themselves, maintaining the essential joy and tenderness, so encouraged by Pope Francis. How good it would be if by their sides, there were also married priests.
Now we finally will be able to enjoy the fact of also having married men, well integrated with their families, who could be priests and share the religious life of the faithful. It will be a gift for them and for the Catholic communities.

Leonardo Boff Eco-Theologian-Philosopher.Earthcharter Commission

Free translation from the Spanish sent by
Melina Alfaro, alfaro_melina@yahoo.com.ar.
Done at REFUGIO DEL RIO GRANDE, Texas, EE.UU.

Respect is everything

Leonardo BoffDeixe um comentário

The lack of respect surely is a wound from which the whole world suffers, even among us.

First, respect demands recognition of the other as other, distinct from us. To respect the other implies that the other has the right to exist and be accepted for what the other is. This attitude is contrary to the intolerance that rejects the other and the other’s way of being.

Consequently there should not be discrimination, but respect, for homosexuals or others in the LGBTQ community: first as human beings, carriers of something sacred and untouchable: the dignity intrinsic in every being, such as intelligence, feelings and loving; and to guarantee their right to be as they are and to live according to their own sexual, racial or religious condition.

In one of their most beautiful documents, “Joy and Hope” (Gaudium et Spes), the Bishops of the world who gathered in Rome in the Vatican II Council (1962-1965), affirmed with certitude that:«Everyone must respect without exception a fellow human being as “another I”» (n.27).

Second, acknowledging the other means seeing in him value as himself, because existing as a unique and singular being in the universe expresses something of the Being, of the boundless Original Source of energy and capabilities whence we all come (the Basic Energy of the Universe, the best metaphor for the meaning of God). Each of us carries within something of the mystery of the world, of which each is a part. Because of that, a limit is established between the other and myself that cannot be transgressed: the sacred aspect of every human being and, deep down, of every being, because all that exists and lives deserves to exist and to live.

Buddhism, presented as wisdom rather than as a faith, teaches respect for every being, especially those who suffer (compassion). The daily wisdom of Feng Shui integrates and respects all the elements, the winds, the water, the soil, the different species. Likewise, Hinduism preaches respect as active non-violence (ahimsa), that found its referential archetype in Mahatma Gandhi.

Christianity knows the image of Saint Francis of Assisi, who respected all beings: the slug on the path, the bee lost in winter searching for food, the small wild plants that in his encyclical letter, “On the Caring for the Common Home”, quoting Saint Francis, Pope Francis calls on us to respect because, in their way, they also praise God (n.12).

The Bishops, in the document mentioned above, broadened respect when they affirmed:«Respect must be extended to those who in social, political and also in religious issues, think and act in different manners than ours» (n.28). Such a calling is currently important in the Brazilian situation, torn by religious intolerance (invasion of terreiros de candomblé), and political intolerance, through disrespectful names for those who are active in the social scene or who have a different reading of the historical reality

We have experienced incidents of great disrespect by students against teachers, using physical and symbolic violence with names we cannot write here. Many ask: what kind of mothers have raised those children? The correct question, however, is different: what kind of fathers have those children had? It is the father’s mission, often hard to carry out, to teach respect, to set the limits and pass on the personal and social values without which a society ceases to be civilized. Presently, with the eclipse of the father figure, sectors arise in society without fathers and because of that with no sense of limits and respect. As we have often seen, the result is the easy resort to violence, even deadly violence, to solve personal disagreements.

Arming the population, as the present President suggests, is not only irresponsible but furthers the current dangerous lack of respect and increased fracturing of all limits.

Lastly, one of the greatest expressions of disrespect is towards Mother Earth, with her over-exploited ecosystems, the dreadful deforestation of the Amazon and excessive use of agro-toxins that poison the soil, the waters, and the air. This lack of ecological respect can bring surprisingly grave consequences against life, biodiversity, and our future as a civilization and as a species.

Leonardo Boff Eco-Theologian-Philosopher,Earthcharter Commission

Free translation from the Spanish sent by
Melina Alfaro, alfaro_melina@yahoo.com.ar.
Done at REFUGIO DEL RIO GRANDE, Texas, EE.UU.